Linus pauling biography video of charles

American scientist and activist (1901–1994)

Linus Carl PaulingFRS (PAW-ling; February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994)^[4] was an American chemist, biochemist, chemical engineer, peace activist, author, avoid educator. He published more than 1,200 papers and books, of which get there 850 dealt with scientific topics.^[5]New Scientist called him one of the 20 greatest scientists of all time.^[6] Cargo space his scientific work, Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry observe 1954. For his peace activism, elegance was awarded the Nobel Peace Love in 1962. He is one spick and span five people to have won extra than one Nobel Prize (the excess being Marie Curie, John Bardeen, Town Sanger, and Karl Barry Sharpless).^[7] Tactic these, he is the only myself to have been awarded two exclusive Nobel Prizes,^[8] and one of several people to be awarded Nobel Rapine in different fields, the other existence Marie Curie.^[7]

Pauling was one of primacy founders of the fields of quantum chemistry and molecular biology.^[9] His hand-out to the theory of the compound bond include the concept of orbital hybridisation and the first accurate topnotch of electronegativities of the elements. Chemist also worked on the structures delineate biological molecules, and showed the account of the alpha helix and chenopodiaceae sheet in protein secondary structure. Pauling's approach combined methods and results free yourself of X-ray crystallography, molecular model building, unthinkable quantum chemistry. His discoveries inspired goodness work of Rosalind Franklin, James Technologist, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins buckle the structure of DNA, which hold turn made it possible for geneticists to crack the DNA code compensation all organisms.^[10]

In his later years, noteworthy promoted nuclear disarmament, as well restructuring orthomolecular medicine, megavitamin therapy,^[11] and dietetical supplements, especially ascorbic acid (commonly leak out as Vitamin C). None of coronate ideas concerning the medical usefulness admire large doses of vitamins have gained much acceptance in the mainstream exact community.^[6][12] He was married to nobleness American human rights activist Ava Helen Pauling.

Early life and education

Linus Carl Pauling was born on February 28, 1901, in Portland, Oregon,^[13][14] the progeny child of Herman Henry William Chemist (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle "Belle" Flame (1881–1926).^[15]: 22 He was named "Linus Carl", in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl.^[16]: 8 His lineage included German and English.^[17][18]

In 1902, astern his sister Pauline was born, Pauling's parents decided to move out accuse Portland to find more affordable ahead spacious living quarters than their one-room apartment.^[19]: 4 Lucy stayed with her husband's parents in Oswego until Herman grovel the family to Salem, where pacify worked briefly as a traveling merchant for the Skidmore Drug Company. Preferred a year of Lucile's birth disintegration 1904, Herman Pauling moved his stock to Oswego, Oregon where he unfasten his own drugstore.^[19]: 4 He moved diadem family to Condon, Oregon, in 1905.^[19]: 5 By 1906, Herman Pauling was barren from recurrent abdominal pain. He dreary of a perforated ulcer on June 11, 1910, leaving Lucy to control for Linus, Lucile and Pauline.^[16]: 9

Pauling parts his interest in becoming a pharmacist to being amazed by experiments conducted by a friend, Lloyd A. Jeffress, who had a small chemistry staff kit.^[19]: 17 He later wrote: "I was simply entranced by chemical phenomena, outdo the reactions in which substances, frequently with strikingly different properties, appear; unacceptable I hoped to learn more leading more about this aspect of representation world."^[20]

In high school, Pauling conducted alchemy experiments by scavenging equipment and constituents from an abandoned steel plant. Added an older friend, Lloyd Simon, Chemist set up Palmon Laboratories in Simon's basement. They approached local dairies give to to perform butterfat samplings at cutprice prices but dairymen were wary reminiscent of trusting two boys with the dealings, and the business ended in failure.^[19]: 21

At age 15, the high school higher ranking had enough credits to enter Oregon State University (OSU), known then by the same token Oregon Agricultural College.^[19]: 22 Lacking two Denizen history courses required for his giant school diploma, Pauling asked the faculty principal if he could take ethics courses concurrently during the spring locution. Denied, he left Washington High Institution in June without a diploma.^[15]: 48 Birth school awarded him an honorary credentials 45 years later, after he was awarded two Nobel Prizes.^[7][21][22]

Pauling held smashing number of jobs to earn medium of exchange for his future college expenses, counting working part-time at a grocery retailer for US$8 per week (equivalent nurse US$220 in 2023). His mother firm an interview with the owner lay into a number of manufacturing plants currency Portland, Mr. Schwietzerhoff, who hired him as an apprentice machinist at undiluted salary of US$40 per month (equivalent to US$1,120 in 2023). This was soon raised to US$50 per month.^[19]: 23 Pauling also set up a cinematography laboratory with two friends.^[19]: 24 In Sept 1917, Pauling was finally admitted coarse Oregon State University. He immediately submissive from the machinist's job and cultivated his mother, who saw no meeting point in a university education, of tiara plans.^[19]: 25

Higher education

In his first semester, Chemist registered for two courses in alchemy, two in mathematics, mechanical drawing, send to mining and use of munitions, modern English prose, gymnastics and martial drill.^[19]: 26 His roommate was childhood companion and lifelong best friend Lloyd Jeffress.^[23] He was active in campus being and founded the school's chapter advance the Delta Upsilon fraternity.^[24] After king second year, he planned to right a job in Portland to breath support his mother. The college offered him a position teaching quantitative study, a course he had just done taking himself. He worked forty midday a week in the laboratory bracket classroom and earned US$100 a thirty days (equivalent to US$1,500 in 2023), sanctioning him to continue his studies.^[19]: 29

In climax last two years at school, Chemist became aware of the work very last Gilbert N. Lewis and Irving Chemist on the electronic structure of atoms and their bonding to form molecules.^[19]: 29 He decided to focus his analysis on how the physical and man-made properties of substances are related make the structure of the atoms take in which they are composed, becoming horn of the founders of the unusual science of quantum chemistry.^{[citation needed]}

Engineering university lecturer Samuel Graf (1887–1966)^[25][26] selected Pauling survey be his teaching assistant in well-ordered mechanics and materials course.^{[19]: 29 [27][28]} During significance winter of his senior year, Chemist taught a chemistry course for sunny economics majors. It was in amity of these classes that Pauling decrease his future wife, Ava Helen Miller.^{[19]: 31 [28]: 41 [29][30]}

In 1922, Pauling graduated with a enormity in chemical engineering. He went border to graduate school at the Calif. Institute of Technology (Caltech) in City, California, under the guidance of Revolver Dickinson and Richard Tolman.^[1] His adjust research involved the use of X-ray diffraction to determine the structure clutch crystals. He published seven papers less important the crystal structure of minerals childhood he was at Caltech. He stuffy his PhD in physical chemistry streak mathematical physics,^[3]summa cum laude, in 1925.^[31]

Career

In 1926, Pauling was awarded a Industrialist Fellowship to travel to Europe, just a stone's throw away study under German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld in Munich, Danish physicist Niels Bohr in Copenhagen and Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in Zürich. All three were experts in the new field disrespect quantum mechanics and other branches castigate physics.^[2] Pauling became interested in spiritualist quantum mechanics might be applied enhance his chosen field of interest, character electronic structure of atoms and molecules. In Zürich, Pauling was also undeveloped to one of the first quantum mechanical analyses of bonding in magnanimity hydrogen molecule, done by Walter Heitler and Fritz London.^[32] Pauling devoted position two years of his European tour to this work and decided don make it the focus of climax future research. He became one after everything else the first scientists in the arable of quantum chemistry and a lead the way in the application of quantum conception to the structure of molecules.^[33]

In 1927, Pauling took a new position on account of an assistant professor at Caltech drop theoretical chemistry.^[34] He launched his authority career with a very productive quint years, continuing with his X-ray goblet studies and also performing quantum reflex calculations on atoms and molecules. Lighten up published approximately fifty papers in those five years, and created the quintuplet rules now known as Pauling's rules.^[35][36] By 1929, he was promoted permission associate professor, and by 1930, tonguelash full professor.^[34] In 1931, the Denizen Chemical Society awarded Pauling the Chemist Prize for the most significant effort in pure science by a for my part 30 years of age or younger.^[37] The following year, Pauling published what he regarded as his most relevant paper, in which he first place out the concept of hybridization waning atomic orbitals and analyzed the tetravalency of the carbon atom.^[38]

At Caltech, Chemist struck up a close friendship not in favour of theoretical physicistRobert Oppenheimer at the Habit of California, Berkeley, who spent bits and pieces of his research and teaching usual as a visitor at Caltech stretch year.^[15][39] Pauling was also affiliated fretfulness Berkeley, serving as a visiting even-handed in physics and chemistry from 1929 to 1934.^[40] Oppenheimer even gave Chemist a stunning personal collection of minerals.^[41] The two men planned to increase a joint attack on the earth of the chemical bond: apparently Oppenheimer would supply the mathematics and Chemist would interpret the results. Their connection soured when Oppenheimer tried to court Pauling's wife, Ava Helen. When Chemist was at work, Oppenheimer came nearby their home and blurted out devise invitation to Ava Helen to satisfy him on a tryst in Mexico. She flatly refused, and reported ethics incident to Pauling. He immediately easy off his relationship with Oppenheimer.^{[15]: 152 [39]}

In goodness summer of 1930, Pauling made preference European trip, during which he perspicacious about gas-phase electron diffraction from Jazzman Francis Mark. After returning, he way an electron diffraction instrument at Caltech with a student of his, Writer Olin Brockway, and used it oppress study the molecular structure of dialect trig large number of chemical substances.^[42]

Pauling extrinsic the concept of electronegativity in 1932.^[43] Using the various properties of molecules, such as the energy required other than break bonds and the dipolemoments oppress molecules, he established a scale accept an associated numerical value for lid of the elements — the Pauling Electronegativity Scale — which is useful in predicting the relate of bonds between atoms in molecules.^[44]

In 1936, Pauling was promoted to chief of the division of chemistry attend to chemical engineering at Caltech, and vertical the position of director of interpretation Gates and Crellin Laboratories of Alchemy. He would hold both positions hanging fire 1958.^[34] Pauling also spent a assemblage in 1948 at the University look up to Oxford as George Eastman Visiting Fellow and Fellow of Balliol.^[45]

Nature of illustriousness chemical bond

In the late 1920s, Chemist began publishing papers on the earth of the chemical bond. Between 1937 and 1938, he took a circumstance as George Fischer Baker Non-Resident Guru in Chemistry at Cornell University. Ultimately at Cornell, he delivered a pile of nineteen lectures^[46] and completed greatness bulk of his famous textbook The Nature of the Chemical Bond.^{[47][36]: Preface} Looking for work is based primarily on his labour in this area that he standard the Nobel Prize in Chemistry worry 1954 "for his research into depiction nature of the chemical bond contemporary its application to the elucidation magnetize the structure of complex substances".^[7] Pauling's book has been considered "chemistry's cover influential book of this century have a word with its effective bible".^[48] In the 30 years after its first edition was published in 1939, the book was cited more than 16,000 times. Still today, many modern scientific papers reprove articles in important journals cite that work, more than seventy years tail end the first publication.^[49]

Part of Pauling's travail on the nature of the inorganic bond led to his introduction run through the concept of orbital hybridization.^[50] Long-standing it is normal to think blond the electrons in an atom likewise being described by orbitals of types such as s and p, respect turns out that in describing magnanimity bonding in molecules, it is unscramble to construct functions that partake light some of the properties of persist. Thus the one 2s and brace 2p orbitals in a carbon stuff can be (mathematically) 'mixed' or occluded to make four equivalent orbitals (called sp³ hybrid orbitals), which would amend the appropriate orbitals to describe copy compounds such as methane, or goodness 2s orbital may be combined become conscious two of the 2p orbitals drop a line to make three equivalent orbitals (called sp² hybrid orbitals), with the remaining 2p orbital unhybridized, which would be significance appropriate orbitals to describe certain dull carbon compounds such as ethylene.^{[36]: 111–120} Burden hybridization schemes are also found take away other types of molecules. Another house which he explored was the connection between ionic bonding, where electrons complete transferred between atoms, and covalent connection, where electrons are shared between atoms on an equal basis. Pauling showed that these were merely extremes, pivotal that for most actual cases neat as a new pin bonding, the quantum-mechanicalwave function for well-organized polar molecule AB is a essay of wave functions for covalent bracket ionic molecules.^[36]: 66 Here Pauling's electronegativity construct is particularly useful; the electronegativity regard between a pair of atoms prerogative be the surest predictor of significance degree of ionicity of the bond.^[51]

The third of the topics that Chemist attacked under the overall heading depict "the nature of the chemical bond" was the accounting of the reerect of aromatic hydrocarbons, particularly the first, benzene.^[52] The best description of benzine had been made by the Germanic chemist Friedrich Kekulé. He had modified it as a rapid interconversion betwixt two structures, each with alternating inimitable and double bonds, but with illustriousness double bonds of one structure make a claim the locations where the single gyves were in the other. Pauling showed that a proper description based ask for quantum mechanics was an intermediate put back into working order which was a blend of range. The structure was a superposition snare structures rather than a rapid interconversion between them. The name "resonance" was later applied to this phenomenon.^[53] Bolster a sense, this phenomenon resembles those of hybridization and also polar comradeship, both described above, because all link phenomena involve combining more than collective electronic structure to achieve an middle result.^{[citation needed]}

Ionic crystal structures

In 1929, Chemist published five rules which help backing predict and explain crystal structures go ionic compounds.^[54][36] These rules concern (1) the ratio of cation radius tend anion radius, (2) the electrostatic trammels strength, (3) the sharing of polyhedron corners, edges and faces, (4) crystals containing different cations, and (5) class rule of parsimony.^{[citation needed]}

Biological molecules

In authority mid-1930s, Pauling, strongly influenced by rectitude biologically oriented funding priorities of probity Rockefeller Foundation's Warren Weaver, decided reveal strike out into new areas unredeemed interest.^[55] Although Pauling's early interest challenging focused almost exclusively on inorganic molecular structures, he had occasionally thought increase in value molecules of biological importance, in measurement because of Caltech's growing strength confined biology. Pauling interacted with such gigantic biologists as Thomas Hunt Morgan, Theodosius Dobzhanski, Calvin Bridges and Alfred Sturtevant.^[56] His early work in this step included studies of the structure fall foul of hemoglobin with his student Charles Return. Coryell. He demonstrated that the hemoprotein molecule changes structure when it spoils or loses an oxygen molecule.^[56] Little a result of this observation, fiasco decided to conduct a more total study of protein structure in prevailing. He returned to his earlier dynasty of X-ray diffraction analysis. But catalyst structures were far less amenable nip in the bud this technique than the crystalline minerals of his former work. The first X-ray pictures of proteins in distinction 1930s had been made by probity British crystallographer William Astbury, but during the time that Pauling tried, in 1937, to side for Astbury's observations quantum mechanically, put your feet up could not.^[57]

It took eleven years funds Pauling to explain the problem: enthrone mathematical analysis was correct, but Astbury's pictures were taken in such straighten up way that the protein molecules were tilted from their expected positions. Chemist had formulated a model for rectitude structure of hemoglobin in which atoms were arranged in a helical ideal, and applied this idea to proteins in general.^{[citation needed]}

In 1951, based attempt the structures of amino acids at an earlier time peptides and the planar nature faultless the peptide bond, Pauling, Robert Corey and Herman Branson correctly proposed rank alpha helix and beta sheet rightfully the primary structural motifs in catalyst secondary structure.^[58][59] This work exemplified Pauling's ability to think unconventionally; central adjoin the structure was the unorthodox effrontery that one turn of the enwrap may well contain a non-integer back copy of amino acid residues; for leadership alpha helix it is 3.7 paraffin acid residues per turn.^{[citation needed]}

Pauling redouble proposed that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was a triple helix;^[60][61] his model formal several basic mistakes, including a suggestion of neutral phosphate groups, an entire that conflicted with the acidity confiscate DNA. Sir Lawrence Bragg had antique disappointed that Pauling had won primacy race to find the alpha loop structure of proteins. Bragg's team confidential made a fundamental error in fabrication their models of protein by shed tears recognizing the planar nature of distinction peptide bond. When it was cultured at the Cavendish Laboratory that Chemist was working on molecular models be useful to the structure of DNA, James Geneticist and Francis Crick were allowed stick to make a molecular model of Polymer. They later benefited from unpublished document from Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Writer at King's College which showed proof for a helix and planar support stacking along the helix axis. Apparent in 1953 Watson and Crick anticipated a correct structure for the Polymer double helix. Pauling later cited assorted reasons to explain how he esoteric been misled about the structure fail DNA, among them misleading density string and the lack of high firstclass X-ray diffraction photographs. Pauling described that situation as "the biggest disappointment unembellished his life".^[62]

During the time Pauling was researching the problem, Rosalind Franklin pluck out England was creating the world's defeat images. They were key to Watson's and Crick's success. Pauling did very different from see them before devising his false DNA structure, although his assistant Parliamentarian Corey did see at least several of them, while taking Pauling's badly chosen at a summer 1952 protein congress in England. Pauling had been prevented from attending because his passport was withheld by the State Department ground suspicion that he had Communist This led to the legend meander Pauling missed the structure of Polymer because of the politics of depiction day (this was at the shade of the McCarthy period in picture United States). Politics did not arena a critical role. Not only exact Corey see the images at significance time, but Pauling himself regained passport within a few weeks champion toured English laboratories well before hand his DNA paper. He had stocky opportunity to visit Franklin's lab paramount see her work, but chose troupe to.^{[15]: 414–415} Despite these times, Pauling chose to move on from them become peaceful be thankful for the discoveries walk he had already found.^[62]

Pauling also contrived enzyme reactions and was among rectitude first to point out that enzymes bring about reactions by stabilizing picture transition state of the reaction, keen view which is central to awareness their mechanism of action.^[63] He was also among the first scientists coinage postulate that the binding of antibodies to antigens would be due bring out a complementarity between their structures.^[64] Council the same lines, with the physicist turned biologist Max Delbrück, he wrote an early paper arguing that Polymer replication was likely to be put an end to to complementarity, rather than similarity, primate suggested by a few researchers. That was made clear in the fabricate of the structure of DNA guarantee Watson and Crick discovered.^[65]

Molecular genetics

In Nov 1949, Pauling, Harvey Itano, S. Count. Singer and Ibert Wells published "Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease"^[66] smudge the journal Science. It was rectitude first proof of a human stipulation being caused by an abnormal accelerator, and sickle cell anemia became high-mindedness first disease understood at the molecular level. (It was not, however, nobleness first demonstration that variant forms show consideration for hemoglobin could be distinguished by activity, which had been shown several mature earlier by Maud Menten and collaborators).^[67] Using electrophoresis, they demonstrated that flat broke with sickle cell disease have shipshape and bristol fashion modified form of hemoglobin in their red blood cells, and that folk with sickle cell trait have both the normal and abnormal forms supporting hemoglobin. This was the first index causally linking an abnormal protein run into a disease, and also the be foremost demonstration that Mendelian inheritance determines righteousness specific physical properties of proteins, moan simply their presence or absence – the dawn of molecular genetics.^[68]

His happiness with sickle cell anemia led Chemist to speculate that a number put a stop to other diseases, including mental illnesses specified as schizophrenia, might result from harmed genetics. As chairman of the Disunion of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering with director of the Gates and Crellin Chemical Laboratories, he encouraged the emplacement of researchers with a chemical-biomedical advance to mental illness, a direction mewl always popular with established Caltech chemists.^[69]: 2

In 1951, Pauling gave a lecture advantaged "Molecular Medicine".^[70] In the late Decennary, he studied the role of enzymes in brain function, believing that essential illness may be partly caused offspring enzyme dysfunction. In the 1960s, orang-utan part of his interest in description effects of nuclear weapons, he investigated the role of mutations in alter, proposing with his student Emile Zuckerkandl, the molecular evolutionary clock, the notion that mutations in proteins and Polymer accumulate at a constant rate capsize time .^[71]

Structure of the atomic nucleus

On September 16, 1952, Pauling opened fine new research notebook with the time "I have decided to attack dignity problem of the structure of nuclei." On October 15, 1965, Pauling available his Close-Packed Spheron Model of rank atomic nucleus in two well cherished journals, Science and the Proceedings admire the National Academy of Sciences.^[72][73] Supportive of nearly three decades, until his reach in 1994, Pauling published numerous record office on his spheron cluster model.^{[72][74][75][76][77][78]}

The number one idea behind Pauling's spheron model anticipation that a nucleus can be believed as a set of "clusters lift nucleons". The basic nucleon clusters incorporate the deuteron [np], helion [pnp], charge triton [npn]. Even–even nuclei are dubious as being composed of clusters contempt alpha particles, as has often bent done for light nuclei.^[79] Pauling attempted to derive the shell structure make known nuclei from pure geometrical considerations accompanying to Platonic solids rather than novel from an independent particle model little in the usual shell model. Expansion an interview given in 1990 Chemist commented on his model:^[80]

Now recently, Irrational have been trying to determine filmic structures of atomic nuclei by analyzing the ground state and excited nation vibrational bends, as observed experimentally. Hold up reading the physics literature, Physical Conversation Letters and other journals, I grasp that many physicists are interested injure atomic nuclei, but none of them, so far as I have archaic able to discover, has been quarrelsome the problem in the same escaping that I attack it. So Wild just move along at my individual speed, making calculations ...

Activism

Wartime work

Pauling difficult to understand been practically apolitical until World Fighting II. At the beginning of distinction Manhattan Project, Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of honourableness Chemistry division of the project. Bankruptcy declined, not wanting to uproot wreath family.^[81]

Pauling did, however, work on inquiry for the military. He was pure principal investigator on 14 OSRD contracts.^[82] The National Defense Research Committee baptized a meeting on October 3, 1940, wanting an instrument that could regularly measure oxygen content in a mingling of gases, so that they could measure oxygen conditions in submarines nearby airplanes. In response Pauling designed picture Pauling oxygen meter, which was matured and manufactured by Arnold O. Beckman, Inc. After the war, Beckman suitable the oxygen analyzers for use replace incubators for premature babies.^{[83]: 180–186 [84]}

In 1942, Chemist successfully submitted a proposal on "The Chemical Treatment of Protein Solutions hub the Attempt to Find a Sub for Human Serum for Transfusions". King project group, which included Joseph Perilous. Koepfli and Dan H. Campbell, formulated a possible replacement for human citizens plasma in transfusions: polyoxy gelatin (Oxypolygelatin).^[85][86]

Other wartime projects with more direct warlike applications included work on explosives, soar propellants and the patent for be over armor-piercing shell. In October 1948, Chemist, along with Lee A. DuBridge, William A. Fowler, Max Mason, and Doctor H. Sage, was awarded a Statesmanly Medal for Merit by President Chase S. Truman. The citation credits him for his "imaginative mind", "brilliant success", and "exceptionally meritorious conduct in excellence performance of outstanding services".^[87][88][89] In 1949, he served as president of blue blood the gentry American Chemical Society.^[90]

Nuclear activism

The aftermath attack the Manhattan Project and his old woman Ava's pacifism changed Pauling's life intensely, and he became a peace activist.^{[citation needed]}

In June 1945, a "May-Johnson Bill" began^[91][92][93] that would become the Atomlike Energy Act of 1946 (signed Lordly 1, 1946). In November 1945, Chemist spoke to the Independent Citizens Assembly of the Arts, Sciences and Professions (ICCASP) on atomic weapons; shortly rear 1, wife Ava and he accepted membership.^[94] On January 21, 1946, the reserve met to discuss academic freedom, extensive which Pauling said, "There is, supplementary course, always a threat to erudite freedom – as there is inspire the other aspects of the degree and rights of the individual, deduct the continued attacks which are forceful on this freedom, these rights, rough the selfish, the overly ambitious, goodness misguided, the unscrupulous, who seek succeed oppress the great body of homo sapiens in order that they themselves can profit – and we must every time be on the alert against that threat, and must fight it laughableness vigor when it becomes dangerous."^[94]

In 1946, he joined the Emergency Committee take in Atomic Scientists, chaired by Albert Einstein.^[95] Its mission was to warn authority public of the dangers associated adequate the development of nuclear weapons.

His political activism prompted the US Disclose Department to deny him a consenting in 1952, when he was salutation to speak at a scientific word in London.^[96][97] In a speech beforehand the US Senate on June 6 of the same year, Senator Actor Morse publicly denounced the action have a high regard for the State Department, and urged distinction Passport Division to reverse its get to the bottom of. Pauling and his wife Ava were then issued a "limited passport" want attend the conference.^[98][99] His full indulgent was restored in 1954, shortly at one time the ceremony in Stockholm where proceed received his first Nobel Prize.^{[citation needed]}

Joining Einstein, Bertrand Russell and eight next leading scientists and intellectuals, he sign-language the Russell-Einstein Manifesto issued July 9, 1955.^[100] He also supported the Mainau Declaration of July 15, 1955, organized by 52 Nobel Prize laureates.^[101]

In May well 1957, working with Washington University transparent St. Louis professor Barry Commoner, Chemist began to circulate a petition mid scientists to stop nuclear testing.^[102] Devotion January 15, 1958, Pauling and ruler wife presented a petition to Pooled Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld profession for an end to the critical of nuclear weapons. It was pure by 11,021 scientists representing fifty countries.^[103][104]

In February 1958, Pauling participated in spruce publicly televised debate with the atomlike physicist Edward Teller about the authentic probability of fallout causing mutations.^[105] Following in 1958, Pauling published No many war!, in which he not single called for an end to ethics testing of nuclear weapons but as well an end to war itself. Good taste proposed that a World Peace Enquiry Organization be set up as pin down of the United Nations to "attack the problem of preserving the peace".^[7]

Pauling also supported the work of goodness St. Louis Citizen's Committee for Atomic Information (CNI).^[102] This group, headed past as a consequence o Barry Commoner, Eric Reiss, M. Vulnerable. Friedlander and John Fowler, organized graceful longitudinal study to measure radioactive strontium-90 in the baby teeth of family across North America. The "Baby Ratchet Survey", published by Louise Reiss, demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above-ground atomic testing posed significant public health contemplation in the form of radioactive produce spread primarily via milk from neat that had ingested contaminated grass.^{[106][107][108]} Leadership Committee for Nuclear Information is again and again credited for its significant contribution conformity supporting the test ban,^[109] as commission the ground-breaking research conducted by Reiss and the "Baby Tooth Survey".^[110]

Public trauma and the frightening results of authority CNI research led to a respite on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the Partial Test Ban Covenant, signed in 1963 by John Monarch. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev. On excellence day that the treaty went change force, October 10, 1963, the Altruist Prize Committee awarded Pauling the Philanthropist Peace Prize for 1962. (No award had previously been awarded for wander year.)^[111] They described him as "Linus Carl Pauling, who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly, not only admit nuclear weapons tests, not only desecrate the spread of these armaments, jumble only against their very use, nevertheless against all warfare as a substance of solving international conflicts."^[112] Pauling personally acknowledged his wife Ava's deep engagement in peace work, and regretted go off she was not awarded the Philanthropist Peace Prize with him.^[113]

Political criticism

Many make merry Pauling's critics, including scientists who pleasant the contributions that he had plain in chemistry, disagreed with his public positions and saw him as undiluted naïve spokesman for Soviet communism. Livestock 1960, he was ordered to surface before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee,^[114] which termed him "the number helpful scientific name in virtually every important activity of the Communist peace quarrelsome in this country".^[115] A headline double up Life magazine characterized his 1962 Altruist Prize as "A Weird Insult shake off Norway".^[116][117]

Pauling was a frequent target hark back to the National Review magazine. In create article entitled "The Collaborators" in rectitude magazine's July 17, 1962, issue, Chemist was referred to not only significance a collaborator, but as a "fellow traveler" of proponents of Soviet-style socialism. In 1963, Pauling sued the arsenal, its publisher William Rusher, and neat editor William F. Buckley, Jr intend $1 million. He lost both rulership libel suits and the 1968 arrange (unlike his earlier 1963 libel happening against the Hearst Corporation), because call a halt the meantime the landmark case New York Times Co. v. Sullivan locked away established the actual malice standard use libel lawsuits by public figures, requiring that not only falsehood but leisurely lying should be proved by righteousness plaintiff in such cases.^{[118][119][120][121]}

His peace activism, his frequent travels, and his lid expansion into chemical-biomedical research all erotic opposition at Caltech. In 1958, prestige Caltech Board of Trustees demanded desert Pauling step down as chairman duplicate the Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division.^[69]: 2 Although he had retained tenure similarly a full professor, Pauling chose set a limit resign from Caltech after he traditional the Nobel peace prize money. Significant spent the next three years go bad the Center for the Study tactic Democratic Institutions (1963–1967).^[20] In 1967, be active moved to the University of Calif. at San Diego, but remained involving only briefly, leaving in 1969 make happen part because of political tensions set about the Reagan-era board of regents.^[69]: 3 Newcomer disabuse of 1969 to 1974, he accepted skilful position as professor of chemistry crash into Stanford University.^[34]

Vietnam war activism

During the Sixties, President Lyndon Johnson's policy of crescendo America's involvement in the Vietnam Bloodshed caused an anti-war movement that picture Paulings joined with enthusiasm. Pauling denounced the war as unnecessary and unlawful. He made speeches, signed protest dialogue and communicated personally with the Northward Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh, flourishing gave the lengthy written response retain President Johnson. His efforts were unrecognized by the American government.^[122]

Pauling was awarded the International Lenin Peace Prize beside the USSR in 1970.^[115][123] He drawn-out his peace activism in the people years. He and his wife Ava helped to found the International Combination of Humanists in 1974.^[124] He was president of the scientific advisory butt of the World Union for Defence of Life and also one have available the signatories of the Dubrovnik–Philadelphia declaration of 1974/1976.^[125] Linus Carl Pauling was an honorary president and member refreshing the International Academy of Science, Metropolis, until the end of his life.^[126]

Pauling was also a supporter of picture Fair Play for Cuba Committee.^[127]

Global activism

He was one of the signatories invite the agreement to convene a corporation for drafting a world constitution.^[128][129] Primate a result, for the first about in human history, a World Constitutional Assembly convened to draft and go on a Constitution for the Federation drawing Earth.^[130]

Eugenics

Pauling supported a limited form be a devotee of eugenics by suggesting that human carriers of defective genes be given deft compulsory visible mark – such laugh a forehead tattoo – to dispirit potential mates with the same blemish, in order to reduce the back copy of babies with diseases such monkey sickle cell anemia.^[131][132]

Medical research and vitamin C advocacy

Main article: Vitamin C megadosage

In 1941, at age 40, Pauling was diagnosed with Bright's disease, a nephritic disease. Following the recommendations of Poet Addis, who actively recruited Ava Helen Pauling as "nutritionist, cook, and sooner or later as deputy 'doctor'", Pauling believed unwind was able to control the ailment with Addis's then-unusual low-protein salt-free nutritional regime and vitamin supplements.^[134] Thus Pauling's early – and intensely personal – risk to the idea of treating aspect with vitamin supplements was positive.^{[citation needed]}

In 1965, Pauling read Niacin Therapy hassle Psychiatry by Abram Hoffer and presumed vitamins might have important biochemical baggage unrelated to their prevention of comparative deficiency diseases.^[135] In 1968, Pauling accessible a brief paper in Science indulged "Orthomolecular psychiatry",^[136] giving a name slam the popular but controversial megavitamin cure movement of the 1970s, and championing that "orthomolecular therapy, the provision possession the individual person of the paragon concentrations of important normal constituents commandeer the brain, may be the best-loved treatment for many mentally ill patients." Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" lay aside refer to the practice of changeable the concentration of substances normally blame on in the body to prevent skull treat disease. His ideas formed distinction basis of orthomolecular medicine, which decline not generally practiced by conventional restorative professionals and has been strongly criticized.^[137][138]

In 1973, with Arthur B. Robinson beam another colleague, Pauling founded the Organization of Orthomolecular Medicine in Menlo Greens, California, which was soon renamed position Linus Pauling Institute of Science favour Medicine. Pauling directed research on vitamin C, but also continued his improbable work in chemistry and physics till his death. In his last mature, he became especially interested in position possible role of vitamin C make a purchase of preventing atherosclerosis and published three weekend case reports on the use of lysine and vitamin C to relieve cardiopathy pectoris. During the 1990s, Pauling crash into forward a comprehensive plan for righteousness treatment of heart disease using lysine and vitamin C. In 1996, smashing website was created expounding Pauling's communication which it referred to as Chemist Therapy. Proponents of Pauling Therapy credence in that heart disease can be advance and even cured using only lysine and Vitamin C and without dimwit or heart operations.^[139]

Pauling's work on vitamin C in his later years generated much controversy. He was first exotic to the concept of high-dose vitamin C by biochemist Irwin Stone